Question 1

Health

Accepted Answer

A universal school food program would ensure all of our children have access to healthy food at school, allowing them to be prepared for their learning day.

Canadian research shows that school food programs increase consumption of healthy foods, build food literacy and positively influence children’s eating patterns. These programs reduce student’s risk of chronic disease and improve their mental health.

• A school food program would provide an excellent opportunity for schools to model and bring to life the revised Canada’s Food Guide (https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/?utm_source=canada-ca-foodguide-en&utm_medium=vurl&utm_campaign=foodguide)and would be a natural extension of the new federal Healthy Eating Strategy (https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.canada.ca/en/services/health/campaigns/vision-healthy-canada/healthy-eating.html&sa=D&source=docs&ust=1649688303034254&usg=AOvVaw2lXdB7VsixtzH25bMn6qqR)and Food Policy for Canada.(https://www.canada.ca/en/agriculture-agri-food/news/2019/06/food-policy-for-canada--backgrounder.html)
 • Such a program would support the development of healthy eating patterns for all children, regardless of income, helping them develop a palate for healthy whole foods including fresh vegetables, fruit and plant proteins. A Canada-wide School Food Program that promotes healthy school food environments would enable children and youth to develop the skills and literacy needed for a lifetime of healthy eating.

Concerns – the evidence:
 • According to Statistics Canada [1], only 22.1% of adolescents aged 12 to 17 meet this benchmark, down from 24.4% in 2017. Since 2017, the proportion of Canadians reporting daily consumption of five or more servings of fruits and vegetables has been declining [2].
 • In 2012 and 2013 only a small proportion of Canadian children met the 2007 Canada’s Food Guide recommendations; low vegetable and fruit consumption are of particular concern [3][4]. Canadians ate fewer fruits and vegetables in 2015 (4.5 servings per day) than in 2004 (5.3 servings per day). In both years, most Canadians did not meet the recommended servings in the 2007 Canada's Food Guide [5].
 •  Over 50% of the total energy intake of children aged 4-18 is from ultra-processed foods. Ultra-processed foods make up over 60% of the daily calorie intake for Canadian children aged 9 to 13 [6] . Families struggle to introduce minimally processed healthy foods for a variety of reasons [7] [8] [9].

Food marketing heavily targets both children and adolescents, with a particular focus on those from low-income backgrounds [10]. Racial and ethnic minority youth, including Black and Indigenous children and teens, are disproportionately exposed to advertisements for foods that are high in calories but low in essential nutrients [11][12].

• Nearly 39% of secondary school students reported having breakfast on fewer than three days during a typical school week [13].
 • One recent survey found that only 10% of youth in grades 6-12 met fruit and vegetable recommendations [14].
 • Research shows that the diet quality of Canadian children across the socio-economic spectrum during school hours is poor. School environments are where children spend a significant portion of their day, consuming 30–50% of their daily caloric intake [15] [16]. This positions schools as critical settings for health promotion and obesity prevention interventions.

Current lunch meals offered contribute relatively lower amounts of nutritious foods, such as dark green and orange vegetables, whole fruits, whole grains, and milk. Additionally, where students eat their meals impacts their dietary intake during the school day. Research found that having lunch off campus was linked to a higher intake of sugar-sweetened beverages [17].
 • The annual economic burden of chronic diseases that can be influenced by poor diet has been estimated anywhere between a staggering $13.8 billion [18] - $26 billion [19].
 • Developing healthy eating habits in children is essential as these habits will persist into adulthood [13] Developing healthy eating habits in children is essential as these habits will persist into adulthood [20]. Early modification in eating habits and behaviours might promote health, and decrease the risk of developing certain health conditions during later life [21] .

Children’s eating habits are deeply connected to their emotional states, social influences, and socioeconomic conditions [22].

Longitudinal data show that healthy eating patterns (e.g., vegetarian-style diets) are maintained more consistently over time than unhealthy ones (e.g., Western diets), indicating that early dietary habits influence long-term health outcomes [23].
 • At least 1/3 of school-aged children in Canada report eating neither vegetables nor fruits at least once daily [24].
 • The majority of school children lack an understanding of how food is produced and why healthy eating habits are part of maintaining a healthy lifestyle [25]

The growing reliance on highly processed foods has reduced the passing down of food skills from parents, caregivers, and extended family to children and adolescents, further limiting their ability to prepare nutritious meals and make informed food choices [26] .

Limited exposure to fruits and vegetables, along with low preference, knowledge, and confidence in preparing them, is associated with lower consumption in children [27] .

School-based initiatives, such as gardening, nutrition education, and cooking programs, have been shown to increase vegetable intake [28] [29] .

Benefits – the evidence:
 • Children participating in school food programs have a healthier overall diet with more nutrient-dense foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and milk. They also consume less saturated and trans fat, salt, and added sugars, particularly from soda consumption. School nutrition programs may be an effective way to increase intake of fibre, calcium, iron, and vitamin D, while reducing excess calories from non-nutritious foods in the diets of children. [30][31][32][33][34]
 • International research on the health and dietary behaviour impacts of school food programs in high-income countries finds modest positive effects overall, including higher vitamin intakes and increased vegetable and fruit consumption, especially in younger children.  [35] [36] [37] [38] 
 • School food programs can contribute to long-term improved dietary behaviours, which can reduce students’ risk of diet-related chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, osteoporosis, cancers, respiratory problems, and mental illness. (Colley et al., 2019) (Drapeau et al., 2016) (Pem & Jeewon, 2015) [39][40][41]
 • Children who eat a morning meal are sick less often, have fewer problems associated with hunger, such as dizziness, lethargy, headaches, stomachaches and earaches, and do significantly better than their peers in terms of cooperation, discipline, and interpersonal relations. School breakfast programs have also been shown to improve memory and cognition in participants. [42]
 • Extensive research from various parts of the world that compares the nutritional quality of food consumed at school that was brought from home versus food acquired through school food programs has found that school food programs provide healthier food overall (regardless of the socioeconomic status of child participants). [43][44][45][46]
 • School Food Programs with a food skills component or garden-based learning have been shown to increase fruit and vegetable consumption [47] [48] [49][50].
 • School-based nutrition programs have been shown to increase children’s nutritional knowledge and influence their food preferences toward high-nutrient dense foods. Children are more likely to consume fruits and vegetables, more willing to try a variety of new foods, and perceive healthy eating more positively. School food programs can benefit children’s lifelong eating patterns into adulthood, including food preferences, self-efficacy, intentions, attitudes, and perceptions. [51][52]
 • School Food Programs that include food and nutrition curriculum offer a unique way to build food literacy at an early age, which includes food skill development and increased nutritional knowledge. Growing food knowledge encourages children to make better dietary choices and adopt healthier eating habits [53] . This can have a direct impact on health as the quality of the diets of adolescents has been correlated with the frequency of their participation in food preparation [54] [55](Colley et al., 2019) (Hoyer & Do, 2020).
 • School garden programs increase food literacy. [56]

Health - References
[1] Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. (2023, November 6). Fruit and vegetable consumption, 5 times or more per day, by age group. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1310009612 
[2] Government of Canada, Statistics Canada. (2019, April 30). Fruit and vegetable consumption, 2017.
[3] Black JL, Billette JM. Do Canadians meet Canada's Food Guide's recommendations for fruits and vegetables? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2013;38(3):234-242.
[4] Health Canada. Do Canadian Children Meet Their Nutrient Requirements Through Food Intake Alone? In: Health Canada, ed. Ottawa: Government of Canada; 2012.
[5]Polsky, J. Y., & Garriguet, D. (2020). Change in vegetable and fruit consumption in Canada between 2004 and 2015. Health Reports, 31(4), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.25318/82-003-x202000400001-eng
[6] Moubarac JC. Ultra-processed foods in Canada: consumption, impact on diet quality and policy implications. Montréal: TRANSNUT, University of Montreal; December 2017. 
[7]  Walsh, A., Meagher-Stewart, D., & Macdonald, M. (2015). Persistent Optimizing: How Mothers Make Food Choices for Their Preschool Children. Qualitative Health Research, 25(4), 527–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314552456
[8] Daniel C. Economic constraints on taste formation and the true cost of healthy eating. Soc Sci Med. 2016;148:34-41.
[9] Slater J, Sevenhuysen G, Edginton B, O'Neilz J. 'Trying to make it all come together': structuration and employed mothers' experience of family food provisioning in Canada. Health Promotion International. 2012;27(3):405-415.
[10] UNICEF Canada. (2024). BITING BACK: Protecting Children in Canada from Marketing of Unhealthy Food and Drink. https://www.unicef.ca/sites/default/files/2024-03/MarketingToChildrenOnUnhealthyFoodAndDrinkBriefFINAL.pdf
[11] Larson, N., & Story, M. (2015). Barriers to Equity in Nutritional Health for U.S. Children and Adolescents: A Review of the Literature. Current Nutrition Reports, 4(1), 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-014-0116-0
[12] Acton, R. B., Bagnato, M., Remedios, L., Potvin Kent, M., Vanderlee, L., White, C. M., & Hammond, D. (2023). Examining differences in children and adolescents’ exposure to food and beverage marketing in Canada by sociodemographic characteristics: Findings from the International Food Policy Study Youth Survey, 2020. Pediatric Obesity, 18(6), e13028-n/a. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijpo.13028
[13] Godin, K. M., Patte, K. A., & Leatherdale, S. T. (2018). Examining Predictors of Breakfast Skipping and Breakfast Program Use Among Secondary School Students in the COMPASS Study. The Journal of School Health, 88(2), 150–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12590
[14] Minaker L, Hammond D. Low Frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption among Canadian youth: findings from the 2012/2013 Youth Smoking Survey​. J Sch Health. 2016; 86: 135-142.
[15] Au, L. E., Gurzo, K., Gosliner, W., Webb, K. L., Crawford, P. B., & Ritchie, L. D. (2018). Eating School Meals Daily Is Associated with Healthier Dietary Intakes: The Healthy Communities Study. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 118(8), 1474-1481.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2018.01.010
[16] Tugault-Lafleur CN, Black JL, Barr SI. Examining school-day dietary intakes among Canadian children. Applied  Physiology,  Nutrition and Metabolism. 2017;00:1-9.  
[17]Tugault-Lafleur, C. N., & Black, J. L. (2020). Lunch on School Days in Canada: Examining Contributions to Nutrient and Food Group Intake and Differences across Eating Locations. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 120(9), 1484–1497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2020.01.011
[18] Lieffers JRL, Ekwaru JP, Ohinmaa A, Veugelers PJ (2018)​The economic burden of not meeting food recommendations in Canada: The cost of doing nothing. ​PLoS ONE 13(4): e0196333.
[19] Regulations Amending the Food and Drug Regulations (Nutrition Labelling, Other Labelling Provisions and Food Colours). (2016). Canada Gazette Part II, 150(25).
[20] Van Cauwenberghe, E., Maes, L., Spittaels, H., van Lenthe, F. J., Brug, J., Oppert, J.-M., & De Boureaudhuij, I. D. (2010). “Effectiveness of school-based interventions in Europe to promote healthy nutrition in children and adolescents: Systematic review of published and ‘grey’ literature.” British Journal of Nutrition,103(6), 781-797. doi:10.1017/S0007114509993370
[21] Bennett, B. J., Hall, K. D., Hu, F. B., McCartney, A. L., & Roberto, C. (2015). Nutrition and the science of disease prevention: a systems approach to support metabolic health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1352(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.12945
[22]Abdoli, M., Scotto Rosato, M., Cipriano, A., Napolano, R., Cotrufo, P., Barberis, N., & Cella, S. (2023). Affect, Body, and Eating Habits in Children: A Systematic Review. Nutrients, 15(15),  3343-. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153343
[23]Movassagh, E. Z., Baxter-Jones, A. D. G., Kontulainen, S., Whiting, S. J., & Vatanparast, H. (2017). Tracking Dietary Patterns over 20 Years from Childhood through Adolescence into Young Adulthood: The Saskatchewan Pediatric Bone Mineral Accrual Study. Nutrients, 9(9), 990-. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9090990
[24] Health Canada. (2015). “Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) in Canada: Focus on Relationships.” Government of Canada. Retrieved from: http://www.healthycanadians.gc.ca/ publications/science-research-sciences-recherches/health-behaviour-children-canada-2015-comportements-sante-jeunes/ index-eng.php
[25] Nowak, A. J., Kolouch, G., Schneyer, L., & Roberts, K. H. (2012). “Building Food Literacy and Positive Relationships with Healthy Food in Children through School Gardens.” Childhood Obesity, 8(4), 392-5.
[26]Health Canada. (2022, May 7). Section 3 importance of Food Skills. Canada Food Guide. https://food-guide.canada.ca/en/guidelines/section-3-importance-food-skills/ 
[27]Davis, J. N., Pérez, A., Asigbee, F. M., Landry, M. J., Vandyousefi, S., Ghaddar, R., Hoover, A., Jeans, M., Nikah, K., Fischer, B., Pont, S. J., Richards, D., Hoelscher, D. M., & Van Den Berg, A. E. (2021). School-based gardening, cooking and nutrition intervention increased vegetable intake but did not reduce BMI: Texas sprouts - a cluster randomized controlled trial. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 18(1), 18–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-021-01087-x
[28] Medeiros, G. C. B. S. de, Azevedo, K. P. M. de, Garcia, D., Oliveira Segundo, V. H., Mata, Á. N. de S., Fernandes, A. K. P., Santos, R. P. D., Trindade, D. D. B. de B., Moreno, I. M., Guillén Martínez, D., & Piuvezam, G. (2022). Effect of School-Based Food and Nutrition Education Interventions on the Food Consumption of Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10522-. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710522
[29] Chan, C. L., Tan, P. Y., & Gong, Y. Y. (2022). Evaluating the impacts of school garden-based programmes on diet and nutrition-related knowledge, attitudes and practices among the school children: a systematic review. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13587-x (https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13587-x)
[30]Aloia, C. R., Shockey, T. A., Nahar, V. K., & Knight, K. B. (2016). Pertinence of the recent school-based nutrition interventions targeting fruit and vegetable consumption in the United States:a systematic review. Health Promotion Perspectives, 6(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.15171/hpp.2016.01
[31] Colley, P., Myer, B., Seabrook, J., & Gilliland, J. (2019). The Impact of Canadian School Food Programs on Children’s Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 80(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-037 (https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-037)
[32] Drapeau, V., Savard, M., Gallant, A., Nadeau, L., & Gagnon, J. (2016). The Effectiveness of A School-Based Nutrition Intervention on Children’s Fruit, Vegetables, and Dairy Product Intake. Journal of School Health, 86(5), 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12385 (https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12385)
[33] Frisvold, D. E. (2015). Nutrition and cognitive achievement: An evaluation of the School Breakfast Program. Journal of Public Economics, 124, 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.12.003
[34] U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2024, November 21). School Nutrition. https://www.cdc.gov/school-nutrition/about/index.html
[35] Aloia, C. R., Shockey, T. A., Nahar, V. K., & Knight, K. B. (2016). Pertinence of the recent school-based nutrition interventions targeting fruit and vegetable consumption in the United States:a systematic review. Health Promotion Perspectives, 6(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.15171/hpp.2016.01
[36] Bontrager Yoder, A. B., Liebhart, J. L., McCarty, D. J., Meinen, A., Schoeller, D., Vargas, C., & LaRowe, T. (2014). Farm to Elementary School Programming Increases Access to Fruits and Vegetables and Increases Their Consumption Among Those With Low Intake. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 46(5), 341–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2014.04.297
[37] Colley, P., Myer, B., Seabrook, J., & Gilliland, J. (2019). The Impact of Canadian School Food Programs on Children’s Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 80(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-037
[38] Drapeau, V., Savard, M., Gallant, A., Nadeau, L., & Gagnon, J. (2016). The Effectiveness of A School-Based Nutrition Intervention on Children’s Fruit, Vegetables, and Dairy Product Intake. Journal of School Health, 86(5), 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12385 (https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12385)
[39] Coll ey, P., Myer, B., Seabrook, J., & Gilliland, J. (2019). The Impact of Canadian School Food Programs on Children’s Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 80(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-037
[40]Drapeau, V., Savard, M., Gallant, A., Nadeau, L., & Gagnon, J. (2016). The Effectiveness of A School-Based Nutrition Intervention on Children’s Fruit, Vegetables, and Dairy Product Intake. Journal of School Health, 86(5), 353–362. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12385
[41]Pem, D., & Jeewon, R. (2015). Fruit and Vegetable Intake: Benefits and Progress of Nutrition Education Interventions- Narrative Review Article. Iranian Journal of Public Health, 44(10), 1309–1321.
[42] Frisvold, D. E. (2015). Nutrition and cognitive achievement: An evaluation of the School Breakfast Program. Journal of Public Economics, 124, 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2014.12.003
[43]Caruso, M. L., & Cullen, K. W. (2015). Quality and Cost of Student Lunches Brought From Home. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(1), 86–90. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2014.2220 
[44]Hubbard, K. L., Must, A., Eliasziw, M., Folta, S. C., & Goldberg, J. (2014). What’s in Children’s Backpacks: Foods Brought from Home. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114(9), 1424–1431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2014.05.010
[45]Neilson, L. J., Macaskill, L. A., Luk, J. M. H., Sharma, N., Killip, S. M., Salvadori, M. I., Seabrook, J. A., & Dworatzek, P. D. N. (2017). Students’ Food Intake from Home-Packed Lunches in the Traditional versus Balanced School Day. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 78(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2016-024
[46]Everitt T, Engler-Stringer R, Martin W, Vatanparast H. Comparing Diet Quality of School Meals versus Food Brought from Home. Can J Diet Pract Res. 2020 Dec 1;81(4):179-185. doi: 10.3148/cjdpr-2020-013. Epub 2020 Jun 4. PMID: 32495636.
[47] Berezowitz, C. K., Yoder, A. B. B., & Schoeller, D. A. (2015). School Gardens Enhance Academic Performance and Dietary Outcomes in Children. Journal of School Health, 85(8), 508–518. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12278
[48] Evidence Brief: Impact of Food Skills Programs on Fruit and Vegetable Consumption among Children and Youth. (2016). Public Health Ontario. https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/documents/E/2016/eb-food-skills.pdf?la=en (https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/documents/E/2016/eb-food-skills.pdf?la=en)
[49]Ontario Agency for Health Protection and Promotion (Public Health Ontario), & Mensah, G. (2016). Evidence Brief: Impact of food skills programs on fruit and vegetable consumption among children and youth. Queen’s Printer for Ontario. https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/documents/e/2016/eb-food-skills.pdf?la=en
[50]Triador, L., Farmer, A., Maximova, K., Willows, N., & Kootenay, J. (2015). A School Gardening and Healthy Snack Program Increased Aboriginal First Nations Children’s Preferences Toward Vegetables and Fruit. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 47(2), 176–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2014.09.002
[51] Colley, P., Myer, B., Seabrook, J., & Gilliland, J. (2019). The Impact of Canadian School Food Programs on Children’s Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 80(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-037
[52] Triador, L., Farmer, A., Maximova, K., Willows, N., & Kootenay, J. (2015). A School Gardening and Healthy Snack Program Increased Aboriginal First Nations Children’s Preferences Toward Vegetables and Fruit. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 47(2), 176–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2014.09.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2014.09.002)
[53] Hoyer, G., & Do, C. (2020). Generating Success for Farm to School. George Brown College, 222.
[54] Colley, P., Myer, B., Seabrook, J., & Gilliland, J. (2019). The Impact of Canadian School Food Programs on Children’s Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research, 80(2), 79–86. https://doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2018-037
[55] Hoyer, G., & Do, C. (2020). Generating Success for Farm to School . Sustain Ontario. https://sustainontario.com/custom/uploads/2020/02/Research-Report_Generating-Success-for-F2S.pdf (https://sustainontario.com/custom/uploads/2020/02/Research-Report_Generating-Success-for-F2S.pdf)
[56] Davis, J. N., Spaniol, M. R., & Somerset, S. (2015). Sustenance and sustainability: maximizing the impact of school gardens on health outcomes. Public Health Nutrition, 18(13), 2358–2367. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1368980015000221

Question 2

Student Wellbeing

Accepted Answer

Healthy, universal school food programs that give children and youth access to nutritious and safe food in a non-stigmatizing manner help students feel connected and that they belong. Healthy dietary patterns are also recognized to contribute to better mental health.

Concerns – the evidence:
 •  An analysis of the Canadian Community Health Survey found that lower fruit and vegetable intake was related to increased risk of distress and depression [1] (McMartin et al., 2013).

Higher fruit and vegetable consumption is associated with a lower risk of depression and depressive symptoms. Nutrients found in fruits and vegetables, such as magnesium, zinc, vitamin C, vitamin E, and folate, may support brain health and mood regulation [2].

Diets high in processed foods, sugar, and unhealthy fats can cause gut inflammation, leading to an imbalance in gut bacteria. This imbalance is linked to higher rates of depression, anxiety, and mood disorders in adolescents [3] . 
 • Children and adolescents with unhealthy dietary patterns, such as frequent consumption of sugary drinks, processed foods, and skipping meals, experience poorer mental health including greater symptoms of depression, stress, anxiety and emotional problems. [4][5][6]

Skipping breakfast and school meals is common among students, especially those from lower-income families, and is linked to higher obesity risk, poorer academic performance, and lower well-being. Many students skip meals due to stigma, lack of time, or poor nutrition knowledge, leading to increased snacking on unhealthy foods and reduced focus in school. [7] [8]

Children's eating behaviours strongly influence their diet quality. Food avoidant behaviours (such as pickiness and slow eating) are linked to lower vegetable, whole grain, and protein intake. Emotional and external eating patterns also play a role, with children eating more sweets and unhealthy snacks in response to stress or food cues. [4] [9]

Benefits – the evidence:
 • Providing free school lunches to all students reduced misbehaviour in schools by 35%, especially physical fights, by removing the stigma associated with free meals and fostering a more inclusive environment. It also helped create a better school atmosphere, reduced social divisions, and contributed to healthier student relationships. [10]

Children from low-income families benefit the most from free school breakfast programs, showing improvements in both classroom behaviour and academic outcomes. [11].

School Breakfast Programs have long-term benefits for students' cognitive performance, attention, and behaviour. Students who regularly participate in free or universal school breakfast programs show improved focus, better memory, and higher academic achievement compared to those who skip breakfast. [11].
 • Studies suggest that students who eat breakfast exhibit better classroom behaviour, including: more on-task behaviour (paying attention, participating in lessons) and less disruptive behaviour (talking out of turn, leaving their seat). [11].

School food programs help students get the nutrition they need, but participation is affected by stigma, food choices, timing, and funding. Making programs universal, culturally inclusive, well-communicated, and flexible can improve acceptance and ensure more students benefit. [12]
 • Eating a balanced diet with key nutrients like fiber, vitamins, and healthy fats helps students feel better mentally, stay focused, and reduce stress. Skipping meals, eating too much fast food, and lacking essential nutrients can lead to lower mood, higher stress, and unhealthy behaviours. [13].

A meta-analysis of 18 studies found that eating more fruits and vegetables is linked to a lower risk of depression. Every 100 g increase in fruit or vegetable intake reduced depression risk by 5%. Both fruits and vegetables, alone or combined, may help protect against depression. [14].

Regular school meals and a balanced diet with fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can help support healthy weight management and overall well-being. Encouraging consistent eating habits in school food programs may play a key role in preventing both obesity and undernutrition among students. [15] [16] .
 • There is strong evidence that school breakfast programs decrease students’ rates of aggressive behaviour and violence. [17]
 • An overall pattern of positive eating behaviours is associated with lower feelings of depression and/or better mental health in children and youth. [18] [19][20]

Higher fruit and vegetable consumption was associated with better psychological well-being. Reducing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in schools could be a targeted strategy for improving adolescent mental health. School food programs should prioritize fresh fruits and vegetables to promote better well-being. [21]

Healthy dietary behaviours (regular breakfast, family meals, and high fruit/vegetable intake) were linked to better mental health and well-being. [22]

Adolescents who ate breakfast daily and had regular family meals reported higher life satisfaction, fewer psychosomatic complaints, and lower school-related stress. Skipping meals and consuming sugary drinks/sweets frequently were associated with higher stress, anxiety, and psychosomatic issues. [22]

Student Wellbeing and Success - References

[1] McMartin, S. E., Jacka, F. N., & Colman, I. (2013). “The association between fruit and vegetable consumption and mental health disorders: evidence from five waves of a national survey of Canadians.” Preventive Medicine, 56, 225-230. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.12.016
[2] Dharmayani, P. N. A., Juergens, M., Allman-Farinelli, M., & Mihrshahi, S. (2021). Association between fruit and vegetable consumption and depression symptoms in young people and adults aged 15–45: A systematic review of cohort studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(2), 1–22.
[3] Simkin, D. R. (2019). Microbiome and Mental Health, Specifically as It Relates to Adolescents. Current Psychiatry Reports, 21(9), 93–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1075-3 (https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1075-3)
[4] Geraets, A. F. J., & Heinz, A. (2023). The associations of dietary habits with health, well‐being, and behavior in adolescents: A cluster analysis. Child : Care, Health & Development, 49(3), 497–507. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.13064
[5] O'Neil A, Quirk SE, Housden S, Brennan SL, Williams LJ, Pasco JA, Berk M, Jacka FN. Relationship between diet and mental health in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Am J Public Health. 2014 Oct;104(10):e31-42. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302110. PMID: 25208008; PMCID: PMC4167107.
[6] Orlando L, Savel KA, Madigan S, Colasanto M, Korczak DJ. Dietary patterns and internalizing symptoms in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2022;56(6):617-641. doi:10.1177/00048674211031486
[7] Gagliano, K. M., Yassa, M. O., & Winsler, A. (2023). Stop the shame and the hunger: The need for school meal program reform. Children and Youth Services Review, 155, 107245-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107245
[8] Wadolowska, L., Hamulka, J., Kowalkowska, J., Ulewicz, N., Gornicka, M., Jeruszka-Bielak, M., Kostecka, M., & Wawrzyniak, A. (2019). Skipping breakfast and a meal at school: its correlates in adiposity context. report from the ABC of healthy eating study of polish teenagers. Nutrients, 11(7), 1563-. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11071563
[9] Maneschy, I., Jimeno-Martínez, A., Miguel-Berges, M. L., Rupérez, A. I., Ortega-Ramiréz, A. D., Masip, G., & Moreno, L. A. (2024). Eating Behaviours and Dietary Intake in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Current Nutrition Reports, 13(3), 363–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-024-00544-w (https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-024-00544-w)
[10] Altindag, D. T., Baek, D., Lee, H., & Merkle, J. (2020). Free lunch for all? The impact of universal school lunch on student misbehavior. Economics of Education Review, 74, 101945-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2019.101945
[11] Adolphus, K., Lawton, C. L., Dye, L., & Croft, C. (2013). The Effects of Breakfast on Behavior and Academic Performance in Children and Adolescents. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 289–319. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00425 (https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00425)
[12] Everitt, T., Ward, S., Martin, W., & Engler-Stringer, R. (2023). Factors contributing to school food program acceptance: A Review of Canadian literature. Health Promotion International, 38(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daac160 (https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daac160)
[13] Yıldız, M., Kaplan, T., & Keser, I. (2023). The relationship between eating habits and mental development in adolescents. J Psy Nurs, 14(4), 369-377. https://doi.org/10.14744/phd.2023.11298.
[14] Saghafian, F., Malmir, H., Saneei, P., Milajerdi, A., Larijani, B., & Esmaillzadeh, A. (2018). Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of depression: accumulative evidence from an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. British Journal of Nutrition, 119(10), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114518000697 (https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114518000697)
[15] Naveed, S., Lakka, T., & Haapala, E. A. (2020). An overview on the associations between health behaviors and brain health in children and adolescents with special reference to diet quality. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(3), 953-. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030953
[16] Viljakainen, J., Figueiredo, R. A. de O., Viljakainen, H., Roos, E., Weiderpass, E., & Rounge, T. B. (2019). Eating habits and weight status in Finnish adolescents. Public Health Nutrition, 22(14), 2617–2624. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980019001447
[17] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018). “School Meals.”. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/ npao/schoolmeals.htm
[18] Arvidsson L, Elben G, Hunsberger M, De Bourdeaudhuij I, Molnar D, Jilani H, et al. Bidrectional association between psychosocial well-being and adherence to healthy dietary guidelines in European children: prospective findings from the IDEFICS study. BMC Public Health 2017; 17(1): 926-937.
[19] Chan HS, Knight C, Nicholson M. Association between dietary intake and ‘school-valued’ outcomes: a scoping review. Health Educ Res 2017; 32(1): 48-57.
[20] Khalid S, Williams CM, Reynolds SA. Is there an association between diet and depression in children and adolescents? A systematic review. Br J Nutr 2016; 116(12):2097-2108.
[21] Dabravolskaj, J., Patte, K. A., Yamamoto, S., Leatherdale, S. T., Veugelers, P. J., & Maximova, K. (2024). Association Between Diet and Mental Health Outcomes in a Sample of 13,887 Adolescents in Canada. Preventing Chronic Disease, 21, E82-. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd21.240187
[22] Jonsson, K. R., Bailey, C. K., Corell, M., Löfstedt, P., & Adjei, N. K. (2024). Associations between dietary behaviours and the mental and physical well-being of Swedish adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 18(1), 43–43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-024-00733-z

Question 3

Academic Success

Accepted Answer

School food programs improve educational outcomes.

Concerns – the evidence:
 • Children and youth require adequate nutrition to learn, grow, and thrive. When students experience food insecurity, their cognitive function, academic performance, and overall well-being suffer [1][2] .

When children do not have enough food, they are more likely to have difficulty concentrating, more absences from school, and lower academic achievement [3] [4].

Poor diet quality and hunger also negatively impact children's mental health, increasing the risk of anxiety, depression, and behavioural challenges [2].

Undernutrition during childhood and adolescence is associated with long-term health consequences, such as a higher risk of chronic diseases later in life [4].

Benefits – the evidence:
 • Studies on long-term breakfast interventions in school showed significant positive effects on standardized test performance, as well as higher attendance and lower tardiness rates. Students who participate in school food programs demonstrate better classroom behaviour and engagement, such as on-task and prosocial behaviour. [5]
 • Enhancing school meal quality is a cost-effective strategy to improve academic performance and promote educational equity. Healthier school meals improve students’ cognitive function and learning outcomes, with greater benefits for those from low-income backgrounds who rely more on school meals. [6]
 • Higher education achievement is associated with better long-term health outcomes, increased economic opportunities, and longer lifespans. By improving school readiness, cognitive function, and graduation rates, school food programs can close the achievement gap by ensuring all students have the nourishment they need to focus, learn, and succeed in school, which in turn reduces health disparities in adulthood [7]. 
 • School food programs, particularly breakfast programs, support students’ academic success by improving math scores, memory, concentration, and attendance. A study of Toronto District School Board students revealed that students who eat breakfast regularly are more likely to perform well academically and stay on track for graduation [8]. 
 • Eating a healthy breakfast is associated with improved mood, reduced absenteeism, improved cognitive function (especially memory), improved ability to stay on task, improved problem solving, increased class participation, reduced incidence of disciplinary problems, and reduced likelihood of being suspended [9].

Academic Success - References:
[1] Anisef, P., Robson, K., Maier, R., & Brown, R. (2017). Food Insecurity and Educational Outcomes: A Focus on TDSB Students. Toronto: Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. https://heqco.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Formatted_Impact-of-Food-Insecurity_FINAL.pdf (https://heqco.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Formatted_Impact-of-Food-Insecurity_FINAL.pdf)
[2] Gallegos, D. (2021). Food Insecurity and Child Development: A State-of-the-Art Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18178990 (https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18178990)
[3] Cotti, C., Gordanier, J., & Ozturk, O. (2018). When does it count? The timing of food stamp receipt and educational performance. Economics of Education Review, 66, 40–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.06.007 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2018.06.007)
[4] Giroux, A. (2022). Hungry Students: Feeding the Body and Mind . BU Journal of Graduate Studies in Education, 14(3), 2022. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1350813.pdf (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1350813.pdf)
[5] Turner L, Chaloupka FJ. Continued Promise of School Breakfast Programs for Improving Academic Outcomes. JAMA Pediatrics. 2015;169(1):13-14.
[6] Anderson ML, Gallagher J, Ritchie ER. School Lunch Quality and Academic Performance. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. 2017;No. 23218.
[7] Sasson, I. (2016). Trends in Life Expectancy and Lifespan Variation by Educational Attainment: United States, 1990–2010. Demography, 53(2), 269–293. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24757057
[8] Anisef, P., Robson, K., Maier, R., & Brown, R. (2017). Food Insecurity and Educational Outcomes: A Focus on TDSB Students. Toronto: Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. https://heqco.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Formatted_Impact-of-Food-Insecurity_FINAL.pdf
[9] Hoyer, G., & Do, C. (2020). Generating Success for Farm to School. George Brown College, 222.

Question 4

Environment

Accepted Answer

When designed with sustainability goals in mind, school food programs provide a strong opportunity for students to experience food and nutrition literacy education about our food systems, including where food comes from as well as the environmental and cultural aspects of food, thereby fostering long-term sustainable eating habits. [1]

A program that follows and promotes the 2019 Canada’s Food Guide Snapshot would help students develop a palate for fresh vegetables, fruit and plant proteins, which is consistent with a diet that emits low amounts of greenhouse gasses.

When school food programs source from local farmers, they create stable markets for small-scale agriculture, reducing investment risks, and ensuring a reliable income for farmers [2]. Therefore, public school food procurement is increasingly being recognized as an important “game changer” to support and promote more sustainable food systems by creating opportunities for local farmers and economies, increasing agricultural productivity, and reducing food insecurity [3].

Locally sourced school food can decrease both plate waste (uneaten food) and production waste (losses during harvesting and distribution) because students prefer and consume fresher, high-quality local produce [4].

School food programs, through strategic planning and adjustments to food procurement, can contribute to environmental sustainability by reducing green house gas emissions by up to 40% while maintaining nutritional adequacy, affordability, and cultural acceptability. By optimizing ingredient use, food waste can be minimized to reduce the overall environmental impact [5].

School food programs can contribute to teaching about culinary heritage, social norms around food, and environmental sustainability. [6] [7]

Environment - References:
[1] Edible Schoolyard Berkeley. (2017, October 27). The Edible Schoolyard Project. https://edibleschoolyard.org/berkeley
[2] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, & World Food Programme. (2018). Home-Grown SchooL Feeding Resource Framework. http://www.fao.org/3/ca0957en/CA0957EN.pdf (http://www.fao.org/3/ca0957en/CA0957EN.pdf)
[3] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT, & Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul − Editora da UFRGS. (2021). Public food procurement for sustainable food systems and healthy diets - Volume 1. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7960en (https://doi.org/10.4060/cb7960en)
[4] Food Secure Canada. (2021). School Food and the Sustainable Development Goals: A pathway to meeting multiple goals and targets. https://foodsecurecanada.org/resources-news/news-media/school-food-and-sustainable-%20development-goals (https://foodsecurecanada.org/resources-news/news-media/school-food-and-sustainable-%20development-goals)
[5] Eustachio Colombo, P., Patterson, E., Schäfer Elinder, L., Lindroos, A. K., Sonesson, U., Darmon, N., & Parlesak, A. (2019). Optimizing School Food Supply: Integrating Environmental, Health, Economic, and Cultural Dimensions of Diet Sustainability with Linear Programming. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(17), 3019. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16173019
[6] Oostindjer M, Aschemann-Witzel J, Wang Q, et al. Are School Meals a Viable and Sustainable Tool to Improve the Healthiness and Sustainability of Children s Diet and Food Consumption? A Cross-national Comparative Perspective. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2016:0.
[7] Moffat T, Thrasher D. School meal programs and their potential to operate as school-based obesity prevention and nutrition interventions: case studies from France and Japan. Critical Public Health. 2014;26(2):133-146.

Question 5

Economic Growth, Job Creation and Agriculture

Accepted Answer

A Universal Canada-wide School Food Program would create jobs for food service workers, Canadian farmers and local food producers, creating economic multipliers and supporting stronger regional food systems.

When local food procurement targets are set and local food is served in school food programs, the local multiplier of the increased local food purchases will impact regional food production, household and business earnings, long-term gross domestic product, and part-time jobs created or sustained.

Benefits – the evidence:
1) Economic Growth

A preliminary University of Guelph study suggests that a Canada-wide program could contribute $4.8 billion to the local economy by 2029 if 30% was spent on local food purchases as well as stimulate the development of as many as 207,700 new jobs. This could be achieved by establishing local food procurement targets to guide purchasing decisions. Targets could be developed by each province / territory so as to be appropriate to their specific region and circumstances. [1] .

Although more research is needed, evidence from one review suggests that 2-5% of farmers’ overall sales are from income generated through school food services and this percentage is larger for small operators [2] .

In a study published by University of Wisconsin - Madison, the growth of local food systems has been significant, with farmers markets, CSAs (Community Supported Agriculture), and food hubs have expanded significantly. Farm-to-school programs have expanded by 430% since 2006, benefiting both local producers and institutional food service programs​. [3]

Local food systems retain more money within communities by cutting down on intermediaries, leading to greater economic resilience​ [3].

Local food production supports sustainable regional development, particularly in rural areas where agriculture is a primary economic activity. Increased production of local food contributes to halting biodiversity loss and improving ecosystems, while also strengthening farmers' economic positions​ [4].

Farm to School programs boost the local economy by increasing spending on local food, with an estimated $16 million spent annually on local foods in Canadian schools​. These programs create new markets for farmers and food businesses, allowing them to sell directly to schools and institutions​. Families also tend to buy more local food at home after being exposed to Farm to School programs, further supporting the local economy​. [5]

Farm-to-school initiatives support local agriculture by promoting sustainable farming practices, school gardens, and food literacy​. Programs that involve school gardens, wild food harvesting, and Indigenous food knowledge help connect students with traditional and local food systems​. [6]

These programs contribute to local economies by keeping food dollars within communities, supporting small- and mid-sized farms​ [7].

Farm-to-school programs encourage greater institutional investment in local food systems, creating market stability for small-scale producers​ [8].

Local food investments support related industries such as food processing, distribution, and retail, creating economic spillover effects [8].

2) Job Creation

Local food systems contribute to job creation not only on farms but also in processing, distribution, and retail sectors such as farmers markets, cooperative grocery stores, and institutional food procurement [3] [8] [10]. The expansion of local food infrastructure can create more stable and equitable jobs by supporting small and mid-sized farmers [3].

A study on the local food economy in Vermont found that between 2000 and 2015, Hardwick created nearly 300 new jobs in farming, food production, and distribution- far more than the 37 jobs created in the nearby town of Glover. This growth attracted entrepreneurs to establish organic farms and food businesses, strengthening the local food industry. [10].

Local food markets and branding initiatives can increase consumer demand, leading to higher employment rates in food-related industries​ [4].

Despite the benefits of local food markets, small farmers face financial struggles due to limited market access, competition from large distributors, production capacity constraints, and supply chain challenges, while institutions encounter barriers such as food safety concerns, liability issues, and labour shortages, all of which hinder the expansion of Farm-to-Institution initiatives [7][11] [12].

Government support and farmer cooperatives can help provide more stable employment opportunities in local food systems​ [13].

3) Agriculture

Diversification in local agriculture is encouraged by local food systems, shifting some farmland from commodity crops to fruits, vegetables, and other high-value products [3].

Many local food initiatives promote sustainable farming practices such as organic production, regenerative agriculture, and reduced use of chemical inputs. [3] [12] . Farmers practice crop rotation, composting, and agro-ecological methods to reduce environmental impact​ [10].

Farm-to-school initiatives support local agriculture by promoting sustainable farming practices, school gardens, and food literacy​ [6] [8]. Farm-to-school programs in British Columbia support local farmers by encouraging schools to buy their food while also teaching students about traditional and local food systems through school gardens, wild food harvesting, and Indigenous food knowledge [6].

Farmers benefit from knowledge-sharing networks with other producers, both locally and internationally, to improve their techniques and adapt to market demands​ [13].

Expanding government incentives for small farmers and local procurement can strengthen sustainable food systems in schools​ [11]. Policy support and investment in infrastructure and farmer training are needed to maximize agricultural benefits [9].

[1] Ruetz, A.T., & Fraser, E.D.G. (2019). National School Food Program a short-term opportunity for
jobs creation and economic growth. Canadian Science Policy Centre.
https://sciencepolicy.ca/posts/national-school-food-program-a-shortterm-opportunity-for-
jobs-creation-and-economic-growth-2/
[2] Velazquez, C. E., Black, J. L., & Potvin Kent, M. (2017). “Food and Beverage Marketing in Schools: A Review of the Evidence.” Int J Environ Res Public Health, Sep; 14(9): 1054. DOI: 10.3390/ ijerph14091054
[3] Deller, S. C., Lamie, D., & Stickel, M. (2017). Local foods systems and community economic development. Community Development (Columbus, Ohio), 48(5), 612–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2017.1373136(https://doi.org/10.1080/15575330.2017.1373136)
[4] Cvijanović, D., Ignjatijević, S., Vapa Tankosić, J., & Cvijanović, V. (2020). Do Local Food Products Contribute to Sustainable Economic Development? Sustainability, 12(7), 2847. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072847 (https://doi.org/10.3390/su12072847)
[5] Farm to Cafeteria Canada. (2018). Benefits of Farm to School - Evidence from Canada. https://www.farmtocafeteriacanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/ImpactBenefits-Sheet-2018_online_EN.pdf (https://www.farmtocafeteriacanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/ImpactBenefits-Sheet-2018_online_EN.pdf)
[6] Powell, L. J., & Wittman, H. (2018). Farm to school in British Columbia: mobilizing food literacy for food sovereignty. Agriculture and Human Values, 35(1), 193–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-017-9815-7 (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-017-9815-7)
[7] Harris, D., Lott, M., Lakins, V., Bowden, B., & Kimmons, J. (2012). Farm to Institution: Creating Access to Healthy Local and Regional Foods. Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 3(3), 343–349. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.111.001677(https://doi.org/10.3945/an.111.001677)
[8] Galloway, C., Devine, S., Parison, J., & Jones, H. (2023). Procurement from local producers for food service in primary and secondary school settings: A scoping review. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 34(2), 316–327. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.618(https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.618)
[9] Bauman, A., & McFadden, D. T. (2017). Exploring Localized Economic Dynamics: Methods-Driven Case Studies of Transformation and Growth in Agricultural and Food Markets. Economic Development Quarterly, 31(3), 244–254. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891242417709530 
[10] Olson, K. A. (2019). The town that food saved? Investigating the promise of a local food economy in Vermont. Local Environment, 24(1), 18–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2018.1545753
[11] Chaves, V. M., Rocha, C., Gomes, S. M., Jacob, M. C. M., & da Costa, J. B. A. (2023). Integrating Family Farming into School Feeding: A Systematic Review of Challenges and Potential Solutions. Sustainability, 15(4), 2863. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15042863
[12] Enthoven, L., & Van den Broeck, G. (2021). Local food systems: Reviewing two decades of research. Agricultural Systems, 193, 103226-. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2021.103226
[13] Schreiber, K., Soubry, B., Dove-McFalls, C., & MacDonald, G. K. (2023). Untangling the role of social relationships for overcoming challenges in local food systems: a case study of farmers in Québec, Canada. Agriculture and Human Values, 40(1), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-022-10343-0(https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-022-10343-0)

Question 6

Women and Families

Accepted Answer

A Canada-wide School Food Program would have a positive impact on all families, particularly women who invest a significant amount of time preparing food for school. A universal program would take pressure off the family budget, provide children equitable and dignified access to healthy food and provide support to low income families (although it should not replace needed income supports for the unacceptable number of Canadians living in poverty).

• Families struggle to introduce minimally processed healthy foods into children and youths’ diets for a variety of reasons. [1] [2]
 • Mothers recognized the importance of fruits and vegetables but struggled to understand what constitutes a healthy diet. Some assumed that expensive foods were automatically healthier. [3]
 • Low-income families struggle with affording fresh and healthy food, often resorting to cheaper, processed alternatives [4].
 • Children often prefer processed, energy-dense foods, creating a challenge for mothers trying to encourage healthier options [3] [5]. The availability of food does not always translate to healthier eating habits, as children often prefer processed foods [6].
 • Allowing children to dictate food choices can lead to a narrower range of foods consumed and increased preference for unhealthy foods. Children are often drawn to processed, high-sugar, and high-fat foods, which makes it harder for parents to encourage balanced eating [7].
 • Parents tend to model healthy eating behaviors for their children but struggle when children are influenced by external factors like peers or advertisements [8].
 • Aggressive marketing of unhealthy foods, especially those targeted at children, makes it harder for mothers to limit processed food consumption [4] [9]. Parents who trust food advertisements tend to purchase more processed, high-sugar, and high-fat foods [10].
 • Cost is the main factor influencing food choices as mothers often prioritize affordability over nutritional quality. Economically-disadvantaged families frequently purchase cheaper, processed, and energy-dense foods instead of fresh fruits and vegetables [6] .
 • Many parents rely on food pantries, government assistance programs, and discount shopping to provide healthier meals. Some express frustration that food assistance programs often provide unhealthy, processed foods [5].
 • Some parents lack confidence in cooking healthy meals, relying on processed or fast foods. Many struggle to understand nutritional labels and make informed choices [9] [11]. 
 • Many grandparents are more permissive with snacks, undermining parents’ efforts to enforce healthy eating [4] [12].

Women and Families – References:
[1] Daniel, C. (2016). Economic constraints on taste formation and the true cost of healthy eating. Social Science & Medicine (1982), 148, 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.025
[2] Slater, J., Sevenhuysen, G., Edginton, B., & O’Neil, J. (2012). “Trying to make it all come together”: structuration and employed mothers’ experience of family food provisioning in Canada. Health Promotion International, 27(3), 405–415. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/dar037
[3]  Lovelace, S., & Rabiee-Khan, F. (2015). Food choices made by low-income households when feeding their pre-school children: a qualitative study. Maternal and Child Nutrition, 11(4), 870–881. https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12028
[4] Walsh, A., Meagher-Stewart, D., & Macdonald, M. (2015). Persistent Optimizing: How Mothers Make Food Choices for Their Preschool Children. Qualitative Health Research, 25(4), 527–539. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732314552456
[5] Nepper, M. J., & Chai, W. (2016). Parents’ barriers and strategies to promote healthy eating among school-age children. Appetite, 103, 157–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.04.012
[6] Hardcastle, S. J., & Blake, N. (2016). Influences underlying family food choices in mothers from an economically disadvantaged community. Eating Behaviors : An International Journal, 20, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2015.11.001
[7]  Russell, C. G., Worsley, A., & Liem, D. G. (2015). Parents’ food choice motives and their associations with children’s food preferences. Public Health Nutrition, 18(6), 1018–1027. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014001128
[8] Screti, C., Edwards, K., & Blissett, J. (2024). Understanding family food purchasing behaviour of low-income urban UK families: An analysis of parent capability, opportunity and motivation. Appetite, 195, 107183–107183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2023.107183
[9] Arora, A., Chew, L., Kang, K., Tang, L., Estai, M., Thepsourinthone, J., Chandio, N., Parmar, J., Doyizode, A. M., Vipin Jain, K., & Bhole, S. (2021). Diet, nutrition, and oral health: What influences mother’s decisions on what to feed their young children? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), 8159-. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158159
[10] Jilani, H. S., Pohlabeln, H., Buchecker, K., Gwozdz, W., De Henauw, S., Eiben, G., Molnar, D., Moreno, L. A., Pala, V., Reisch, L., Russo, P., Veidebaum, T., Ahrens, W., & Hebestreit, A. (2018). Association between parental consumer attitudes with their children’s sensory taste preferences as well as their food choice. PloS One, 13(8), e0200413–e0200413. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200413
[11] Jones, B. L., Orton, A. L., Tindall, S. W., Christensen, J. T., Enosakhare, O., Russell, K. A., Robins, A. M., Larriviere-McCarl, A., Sandres, J., Cox, B., Thomas, C., & Reynolds, C. (2023). Barriers to Healthy Family Dinners and Preventing Child Obesity: Focus Group Discussions with Parents of 5-to-8-Year-Old Children. Children (Basel), 10(6), 952-. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10060952
[12] Kim, H. S., Park, J., Ma, Y., & Im, M. (2019). What Are the Barriers at Home and School to Healthy Eating?: Overweight/Obese Child and Parent Perspectives. The Journal of Nursing Research, 27(5), 1-9–010. https://doi.org/10.1097/jnr.0000000000000321

Question 7

Youth / Parental Involvement

Accepted Answer

1. Student Participation in School Food Decision-Making

Students feel excluded from school food decisions and want more control over meal choices. Limited opportunities exist for students to provide feedback on menu options, and changes to meals are often made without student input [1] [2].

Some schools have School Nutrition Action Groups (SNAGs) that allow students to share opinions, but their influence is often limited [1].

Suggested strategies to increase student involvement include:
- Taste-testing events before menu items are introduced [1].
- Student-led food councils or direct consultation with cafeteria staff [2].
- Surveys to gather input on food preferences [2].

2. Food Preferences, Access, and Social Influences

Students express a desire for healthier, fresher, and more diverse options, especially fruits and vegetables [1].

Cafeteria food is often perceived as bland, processed, and lacking customization for dietary needs. However, healthier options tend to be more expensive, thus limiting accessibility. Even when nutritious foods are available, peer influence and established eating habits strongly shape food choices [2].

Students feel frustrated by mixed messages as schools promote healthy eating in theory but do not always provide nutritious options in practice [2].

Teacher and peer role modeling can positively influence student food choices and eating behaviours [2] [3].

3. Hands-On Learning and Student-Led Initiatives

Passive food provision alone does not lead to lasting dietary changes - students need experiential learning opportunities to develop lifelong food skills and food habits [3][4].

School gardens and cooking programs improve vegetable consumption and willingness to try new foods by providing greater access to fresh vegetables and making students more open to trying them [4][5].

Cross-curricular education, such as integrating nutrition education into science and math curricula, has been proposed as an efficient and effective option for teachers [6].

Homework-based nutrition programs that include family participation lead to:
- Increased vegetable consumption and reduced intake of unhealthy foods [7].
- Higher physical activity levels, showing potential for broader health benefits [7].

4. Role of Schools in Shaping Family Food Environments

Programs that include parental involvement (e.g., cooking workshops, take-home nutrition activities) are more effective in changing long-term food behaviours. Schools should integrate student leadership with parental involvement to create stronger school-home connections in food education [3].

Schools can strengthen home food habits by:
- Encouraging students to take leadership in meal preparation at home [3].
- Providing nutrition education that engages parents through activities, resources, and discussions [3][7].

5. Overcoming Barriers to Student and Parent Engagement

Common challenges for parental involvement include work schedules, childcare, and language barriers [8].

Solutions to increase participation and retention in school food programs:
- Offering flexible session timing and formats to accommodate diverse schedules [9][10].
- Providing culturally relevant educational materials that align with families’ food traditions and health literacy levels [11] [12] [13] .
- Offering programs in multiple languages to support non-English-speaking parents [9][14].
 
References
[1] Day, R. E., Sahota, P., Christian, M. S., & Cocks, K. (2015). A qualitative study exploring pupil and school staff perceptions of school meal provision in England. British Journal of Nutrition, 114(9), 1504–1514. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114515002834
[2] Spencer, R. A., McIsaac, J.-L. D., Stewart, M., Brushett, S., & Kirk, S. F. L. (2019). Food in Focus: Youth Exploring Food in Schools Using Photovoice. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 51(8), 1011–1019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2019.05.599 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2019.05.599)
[3] Reagan, R., Woodruff, S. J., Seabrook, J. A., & Gilliland, J. (2022). A randomized control trial of a Canadian-based school food program on the home food environment. Health Promotion International, 37(3). https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daac087 (https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daac087)
[4] Dudley, D. A., Cotton, W. G., & Peralta, L. R. (2015). Teaching approaches and strategies that promote healthy eating in primary school children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 12(1), 28–28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-015-0182-8 (https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-015-0182-8)
[5] Davis, J. N., Martinez, L. C., Spruijt-Metz, D., & Gatto, N. M. (2021). LA Sprouts randomized controlled nutrition and gardening program reduces obesity and metabolic risk in Latino youth. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 53(1), 20-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2020.06.031 (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2020.06.031)
[6] Metos, J. M., Sarnoff, K., & Jordan, K. C. (2019). Teachers' perceived and desired roles in nutrition education. Journal of School Health, 89(1), 68-76. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12712 (https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12712)
[7] Duncan, S., McPhee, J. C., Schluter, P. J., Zinn, C., Smith, R., & Schofield, G. (2011). Efficacy of a compulsory homework programme for increasing physical activity and healthy eating in children: the healthy homework pilot study. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 8(1), 127–528. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-8-127 (https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-8-127)
[8] Finigan-Carr, N. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Haynie, D. L., & Cheng, T. L. (2014). Engaging urban parents of early adolescents in parenting interventions: Home visits vs. group sessions. School Community Journal, 24(2), 63.
[9] Besnilian, A., Johnson, P., & Plunkett, S. W. (2018). A taste of good health: Evaluation of a school‐based, healthy lifestyles program for parents in Latino communities. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 46(3), 205-218.  https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12249 (https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12249)
[10] Fleming, C., Speller, V., Hughes, M., & Palmer, S. (2015). The impact of involving young people in developing health promotion resources. Health Education Journal, 74(4), 389-402. https://doi.org/10.1177/0017896914540292 
[11] Cunha, D. B., de Souza, B. S. N., Pereira, R. A., & Sichieri, R. (2013). Effectiveness of a randomized school-based intervention involving families and teachers to prevent excessive weight gain among adolescents in Brazil. Public Health Nutrition, 16(3), 616-624. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980012004480
[12] Dickin, K. L., Hill, T. F., & Dollahite, J. S. (2014). Practice-based evidence of effectiveness in an integrated nutrition and parenting education intervention for low-income parents. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114(6), 945-950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.09.029
[13] Rausch, J. C., Berger-Jenkins, E., Nieto, A. R., McCord, M., & Meyer, D. (2015). Effect of a school-based intervention on parents' nutrition and exercise knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. American Journal of Health Education, 46(1), 33-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2014.977411
[14] Webster-Stratton, C. (2020). The Incredible Years: Parents, teachers, and children training series. Incredible Years. https://www.incredibleyears.com

Question 8

School Food for Black students/families

Accepted Answer

Black students are almost three times more likely to experience food insecurity than their white counterparts (28.4% and 10.0%, respectively) [1] . 
The protective effects of economic stability associated with traditional safety nets, such as homeownership or senior income, are diminished in Black households [1]. 
Research shows that systemic and institutional racism is a key factor contributing to this disparity, with being Black appearing to be an overriding predictor of food insecurity [1]. 
A universal food program can support Black food sovereignty. Prioritizing procurement of school food ingredients from Black-owned farms and businesses can promote economic opportunities and alleviate income-based issues in these communities [2].
 
Culturally-rooted community health and nutrition programs, defined as “African-centred nutrition, mental health and health promotion programs informed by African, Caribbean and Black communities’ distinct experiences, culture and needs, to deliver responsive, trauma-informed, holistic and supportive healthcare resources and services to address food and diet-related health disparities”, are an integral component of promoting Black food sovereignty and reducing Black food insecurity [3]. 
School food programs need to provide increased access to culturally appropriate food, education, and opportunities to improve health outcomes and food literacy for Black children and youth [3].

Food education in the curriculum should empower students to learn about the systemic inequalities in the food system and to advocate for food justice.
Black students, families, and community members should be consulted as decision-makers and experts in defining how to access their culturally appropriate foods [3]. 
Health policies addressing food insecurity, such as the National School Food Policy, must explicitly consider race as a social determinant of health in order to effectively address racial inequities in access to healthy food environments [1].

References

[1] Dhunna, S., & Tarasuk, V. (2021). Black–white racial disparities in household food insecurity from 2005 to 2014, Canada. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 112(5). https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-021-00539-y (https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-021-00539-y)
[2] Coalition for Healthy School Food. (2024, January 4). Coalition for Healthy School Food enthusiastically welcomes investment in a National School Food Program. Coalition for Healthy School Food. https://www.healthyschoolfood.ca/post/coalition-for-healthy-school-food-enthusiastically-welcomes-investment-in-a-national-school-food-pro (https://www.healthyschoolfood.ca/post/coalition-for-healthy-school-food-enthusiastically-welcomes-investment-in-a-national-school-food-pro)
[3] Toronto Black Food Sovereignty Plan. (2021). In City of Toronto. https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2021/ec/bgrd/backgroundfile-170565.pdf (https://www.toronto.ca/legdocs/mmis/2021/ec/bgrd/backgroundfile-170565.pdf)

Question 9

References

Accepted Answer

1 Garriguet, D. (2006, July 6). Canadian community health survey: Overview of Canadians' eating habits. The Daily. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/060706/dq060706b-eng.htm
2 Langlois, K. & Garriguet, D. (2011). Sugar consumption among Canadians of all ages. Health Reports, 22(3). Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2011003/article/11540-eng.pdf
3 Public Health Agency of Canada. (2011). Diabetes among First Nations, Inuit, and Métis populations [chapter 6]. In Diabetes in Canada: Facts and Figures from a Public Health Perspective. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cd-mc/publications/diabetes-diabete/facts-figures-faits-chiffres- 2011/chap6-eng.php
4 Butler-Jones, D. (2008). Social and economic factors that influence our health and contribute to health inequalities [chapter 4]. In The Chief Public Health Officer’s Report on the State of Public Health in Canada 2008. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/cphorsphc-respcacsp/2008/fr- rc/cphorsphc-respcacsp07c-eng.php#2
5 Public Health Agency of Canada. (2011, September 19). United Nations NCD Summit 2011 [backgrounder]. In Canada Signs UN Declaration on Preventing and Controlling Chronic Diseases. Retrieved from http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/media/nr-rp/2011/2011_0919-bg-di-eng.php#ftii
6 Kleinman, R. E., Hall, S., Green, H., Korzec-Ramirez, D., Patton, K., Pagano, M. E., & Murphy, J. M. (2002). Diet, breakfast, and academic performance in children. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 46(1), 24-30.
7 Murphy, J. M., Pagano, M. E., Nachmani, J., Sperling, P., Kane, S., & Kleinman, R. E. (1998). The relationship of school breakfast to psychosocial and academic functioning: cross-sectional and longitudinal observations in an inner-city school sample. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 152(9), 899-907.
8 Bernstein, L. S., McLaughlin, J. E., Crepinsek, M. K., & Daft, L. M. (2004). Evaluation of the school breakfast program pilot project: Final report. Nutrition Assistance Program Report Series. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED486532.pdf
9 Alaimo, K., Olson, C. M., Frongillo, E. A. Jr., & Briefel, R. R. (2001). Food insufficiency, family income, and health in U.S. preschool and school-aged children. American Journal of Public Health, 91(5), 781-786.
10 Alaimo, K., Olson, C. M., & Frongillo, E. A. (2002). Family food insufficiency, but not low family income, is positively associated with dysthymia and suicide symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Nutrition, 132, 719−725.
11 Casey, P. H., Szeto, K. L., Robbins, J. M., Stuff, J. E., Connell, C. , Gossett, J. M., & Simpson, P. M. (2005). Child health-related quality of life and household food security. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 159(1), 51-56.
12 Weinreb, L., Wehler, C., Perloff, J., Scott, R., Hosmer, D., Sagor, L., & Gundersen, C. (2002). Hunger: Its impact on children's health and mental health. Pediatrics, 110(4), e41.
13 Brown, J. L., Beardslee, W. H., & Prothrow-Stith, D. (2008). Impact of breakfast on children’s health and learning: An analysis of the scientific research. Sodexo Foundation. Retrieved from http://www.sodexofoundation.org/hunger_us/Images/Impact%20of%20School%20Breakfast%20Study_tcm150-212606.pdf
14 Robien, K., Demark-Wahnefried, W., & Rock, C.L. (2011). Evidence-based guidelines for cancer survivors: Current guidelines, knowledge gaps, and future research directions. Journal of the American Dietetics Association, 111(3), 368-75.
15 Dalen, J.E. (2013). Diets to prevent coronary heart disease 1957-2013: What have we learned? American Journal of Medicine, 127(5), 364-369.
16 Heflin, C. M., Siefert, K., & Williams, D. R. (2005). Food insufficiency and women’s mental health: Findings from a 3-year panel of welfare recipients. Social Science and Medicine, 61, 1971-1982.
17 Seligman, H. K., Bindman, A. B., Vittinghoff, E., Kanaya, A. M., & Kushel, M. B. (2007). Food insecurity is associated with diabetes mellitus: Results from the National Health Examination and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999–2002. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(7), 1018- 1023.
18 Seligman, H. K., Laraia, B. A., & Kushel, M. B. (2010). Food insecurity is associated with chronic disease among low-income NHANES participants. Journal of Nutrition, 140(2), 304-310.
19 Siefert, K., Heflin, C. M., Corcoran, M. E., & Williams, D. R. (2004). Food insufficiency and physical and mental health in a longitudinal survey of welfare recipients. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 45(2), 171-186.
20 Skinner, K., Hanning, R. M., Metatawabin, J., Martin, I. D., & Tsuji, L. J. S. (2012). The impact of a school snack program on the dietary intake of grade six to ten First Nations students living in a remote community in northern Ontario, Canada. Rural and Remote Health,12(3), 1-17.
21 Mâsse, L. C., & de Niet, J. E. (2013). School nutritional capacity, resources and practices are associated with availability of food/beverage items in schools. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10, 26.
22 Affenito, S. G., Thompson, D. R., Barton, B. A., Franko, D. L., Daniels, S. R., Obarzanek, E., Schreiber, G. B., & Striegel-Moore, R. H. (2005). Breakfast consumption by African-American and white adolescent girls correlates positively with calcium and fiber intake and negatively with body mass index. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(6), 938-945.
23 Kerver, J. M., Yang, E. J., Obayashi, S., Bianchi, L., & Song, W. O. (2006). Meal and snack patterns are associated with dietary intake of energy and nutrients in US adults. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 106(1), 46-53.
24 Crepinsek, M. K., Singh, A., Bernstein, L. S., & McLaughlin, J. E. (2006). Dietary effects of universal-free school breakfast: Findings from the evaluation of the school breakfast program pilot project. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 106(11), 1796-1803.
25 Dalen, J.E. (2013).
26 Muthuswamy, E. (2012). Feeding our future: The first- and second-year evaluation. Toronto District School Board. Retrieved from http://www.tdsb.on.ca/Portals/0/Elementary/docs/SupportingYou/EvaluationFOFProgram19Mar12.pdf
27 Taras, H. (2005). Nutrition and student performance at school. Journal of School Health, 75(6), 199-213.
28 Kleinman, R. E., Murphy, J. M., Little, M., Pagano, M., Wehler, C. A., Regal, K., & Jellinek, M. S. (1998). Hunger in children in the United States: Potential behavioral and emotional correlates. Pediatrics, 101(1), 3.
29 Murphy, J. M., Pagano, M. E., Nachmani, J., Sperling, P., Kane, S., & Kleinman, R. E. (1998). The relationship of school breakfast to psychosocial and academic functioning: cross-sectional and longitudinal observations in an inner-city school sample. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 152(9), 899-907.
30 Alaimo, K., Olson, C. M., & Frongillo, E. A., Jr. (2001). Food insufficiency and American school-aged children’s cognitive, academic and psychosocial development. Pediatrics, 108(1), 44-53.
31 Tarasuk, V., Mitchell, A. & Dachner, N. (2012). Household Food Insecurity in Canada 2012. PROOF Research to Identify Policy Options to Reduce Food Insecurity. Retrieved from http://nutritionalsciences.lamp.utoronto.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Household_Food_Insecurity_in_Canada- 2012_ENG.pdf
32 Council of Canadian Academies. (2014). Aboriginal Food Security in Northern Canada: An Assessment of the State of Knowledge. The Expert Panel on the State of Knowledge of Food Security in Northern Canada. Retrieved from http://www.scienceadvice.ca/uploads/eng/assessments%20and%20publications%20and%20news%20releases/food%20security/foodsecurity_fullrepor ten.pdf
33 Lafayette, B. (2014). Economic Impacts of Federally-Funded Food Support Programs on the Franklin County, Ohio, Economy. Regionomics. Retrieved from http://hungerhub.org/images/images/report/ImpactofFoodAssistanceonFranklinCountyEconomy.pdf
34 Muthuswamy, E. (2012). Feeding our future: The first- and second-year evaluation. Toronto District School Board. Retrieved from http://www.tdsb.on.ca/Portals/0/Elementary/docs/SupportingYou/EvaluationFOFProgram19Mar12.pdf
35 Hankivsky, O. (2008). Cost Estimates of Dropping out of High School in Canada. Canadian Council on Learning, 1-85. Retrieved from http://www.ccl- cca.ca/pdfs/OtherReports/CostofdroppingoutHankivskyFinalReport.pdf
35 Lafayette, B. (2014).

CANADA-WIDE STRATEGIES AND INITIATIVES

Resource

Detailed fact sheet of
the Benefits of School Food Programs

Resource

Summary of
the Benefits of School Food Programs

Latest School Food Research

The Impact

CANADA-WIDE STRATEGIES AND INITIATIVES

Resource

Detailed fact sheet of the Benefits of School Food Programs

Resource

Summary of the Benefits of School Food Programs

Latest School Food Research

The Impact

Detailed fact sheet of
the Benefits of School Food Programs

Summary of
the Benefits of School Food Programs